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Human behavior and its disorders have always been grounds for the nature-nurture controversy. Stimuli, including persons, objects, and physical settings, that are associated with a reinforced response are called discriminative stimuli. A punisher is any event that when made to follow a response, decreases the frequency of that response. A reinforcer is any event that, when made to follow a response, increases the frequency of that response. Operants are purposive and voluntary behaviors shaped, maintained, or increased by consequences called reinforcers or decreased by consequences called punishers or aversive stimuli. A behavior that can be increased or decreased by arranging certain consequences for it is called an operant. This anxiety, which is eventually conditioned to certain sounds, words, the act of speech, and speaking situations, leads to avoidance behaviors called stuttering. A few theorists have suggested that stuttering is a learned avoidance behavior. Some children who have problems in language acquisition or speech production later develop stuttering. The anticipatory struggle theory states that stuttering itself is a reaction of tension and speech fragmentation. A well-known theory of stuttering that explained it on the basis of environmental event is known as the diagnosogenic theory. Many observations suggest that stuttering varies depending on environmental stimuli or events. From ancient times, philosophers, medical experts, and others have speculated about the organic or neurophysiological causes of stuttering. Therefore, it is possible that the effects of the delayed auditory feedback are due to slower speech. We know that when a person who stutters speaks slowly, fluency improves. Another organic theory of stuttering is that people who stutter might have a defective auditory mechanism. The experts believe this difference is due to the importance and complexity of speech and language, which this hemisphere controls. One line of investigation has suggested that in most individuals who stutter, one hemisphere of the brain may not be in full control of language or language may be processed in the right side of the brain. Because the brain controls speech, stuttering may be due to faulty structures of functions of the brain. The vocal folds normally vibrate in a regular and rhythmic manner, but in the production of stuttering, they vibrate irregularly which blocks voicing and speech. In recent years, researchers have looked at the larynx and its behaviors as a possible source of stuttering. Because speech is a finely regulated activity, the nerves, muscles, and brain must function properly to produce normal, fluent speech. Modern neurophysiological theories are based on extensive research on the speech mechanism and the brain, which controls the movements of speech. Historically, different organs or systems of the body, including those that have nothing to do with speech, have been blamed for stuttering.
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