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Because of this belief, the child comes to anticipate trouble every time certain words must be spoken and begins to struggle while saying them. Operants are purposive and voluntary behaviors shaped, maintained, or increased by consequences called reinforcers or decreased by consequences called punishers or aversive stimuli. A behavior that can be increased or decreased by arranging certain consequences for it is called an operant. Another learning based view of stuttering is based on operant conditioning work. The main problem in this theory is that it is difficult to show that parents react negatively to normal dysfluencies, creating the chain of events leading to anxiety and avoidance. Parents' negative reaction to their children's speech is the beginning of the problem. The anxiety, which is eventually conditioned to certain sounds, words, the act of speech, and speaking situations, leads to avoidance behaviors called stuttering. A researcher suggested that children whose parents negatively evaluate their dysfluencies begin to experience anxiety about their speech. A few theorists have suggested that stuttering is a learned avoidance behavior. The observation that a person who stutters speaks fluently on some words, in some speaking situations, and at some times but speaks dysfluently on other words, in other speaking situations, and at other times suggests that perhaps the person has been conditioned to behave that way. Many children who stutter do not show other kinds of communicative problems that may instill such a belief before their onset of stuttering. Theory of anticipatory struggle and fragmentation of speech into dysfluent forms is consistent with many observations about stuttering. Because of this belief, the child comes to anticipate trouble every time certain words must be spoken begins to struggle while saying them. Even the child who can produce the whole word is likely to break it apart because of the belief that it is too difficult to produce the whole unit. The child is most likely to fragment the word for the sake of simplicity. Speakers who stutter may process verbal and non-verbal material in the same hemisphere, which the right hemisphere might be the wrong hemisphere for language. The problems in learning the language or the sound system of the language, combined with the usual pressure to communicate, are likely to instill the belief that speech is a difficult task. Some children who have problems in language acquisition or speech production later develop stuttering. The child may acquire the belief that speech is a difficult task for many reasons. The anticipatory struggle theory states that stuttering itself is a reaction of tension and speech fragmentation. A variation of another theory assumes that stuttering is due to the child's belief that speech is a difficult task. Parents diagnose stuttering when there is an increase in the amount and duration of dysfluencies, most likely accompanied by muscular tension and effort. Most of the children and adults who stutter have significantly more dysfluencies than those who do not. Therefore, the child tries to avoid what the parents think the problem which are the dysfluencies or normal non-fluencies. In researcher's thinking, the problem of stuttering started after the mistaken diagnosis. One theory was that because of the misdiagnosis, the child believes that there is something wrong with his or her speech. The brain of people who stutter may not be initiating speech activity in efficient manner. Other experts have determined that the movements involved in speech are slower in people who stutter than in those who do not stutter, even when the speech of the person who typically stutters is fluent at the time of measurement. By making moving cineradiography of the faces and oral structures of speakers who stutter, other experts have determined that the movement involved in speech are slower.
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