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Echoics are imitative verbal responses whose stimuli are the speech of another person. Errors of many phonemes that form patterns or clusters are described as phonological disorders. Articulation is disordered when a person cannot correctly produce one or more of the phonemes of his or her language. Vocal nodules, more commonly seen in children, are small nodes that develop on the vocal folds and cause breathy and hoarse voice. Dysphonia includes all other kinds of voice disorders, and it may affect one or more aspects of voice. Aphonia is total loss of voice, a somewhat rare but an extreme disorder of voice. When the vocal mechanism does not work normally because of diseases or because the individual does not use that mechanism properly, we have disorders of voice. A communicative disorder is described as acquired when there has been a period of normal communication. Congenital conditions include genetic syndromes that cause birth defects physical deformities, brain damage, and intellectual disabilities. Congenital disorders are noticed at the time of birth or soon thereafter. Etiology means the study of causes diseases and disorders. The classification based on known or presumed causes of disorders is etiological. Essentially, Van Riper said that disordered speech deviates from the speech of other persons, calls attention to itself, interferes with communication, and often causes distress in both the speaker and the listener. Except for a few very young children, persons who have disordrs of communication know that they have a problem. Autoclitics are secondary verbal responses that help point out the causes of primary verbal responses. Intraverbals are a group of verbal responses that are stimulated by the speaker's own prior verbal responses. Skinner defined verbal behavior as a form of social behavior maintained by the actions of verbal community. A smile, a nod of approval, and similar statements by a listener may all reinforce a tact. A tact is a group of verbal response that describe and comment on the things and events around the speaker. Listeners reinforce mands by presenting food or complying with what the mands demand of the listeners. A mand is a functional unit of verbal behavior that is caused by deprivation or need. All functional units are also called verbal operants. Audience refers to a relation between the speaker and the listener. Obviously, and for the most part, overt speaking behavior requires the presence of other persons who serve as the audience. Verbal behavior is characteristically produced under social stimulation. A punisher is an event that follows a response and makes that response less likely in the future. A functional unit may have one type of consequence, and a different functional unit may have a different type of consequence. A punisher is an event that follows a response makes that response less likely in the future. A reinforcer is an event that follows a response and makes response more likely in the future. In the case of verbal behavior, a consequence is what a listener or listeners say or do. A functional unit is a class or a group of verbal responses that are produced under similar circumstances and receive similar consequences.
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