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지문 전체 문장
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It has been hypothesized that the longer and the less frequently used words are more difficult to produce, and thus they tend to be stuttered more often. Children who are frequently hospitalized for prolonged illness may be somewhat slow in acquisition of language. Results of these listener judgment studies have generally indicated that most dysfluencies are judged abnormal or stuttered when they reach or exceed 5% of the words spoken. Researchers have asked ordinary people to listen to speech sample that contain varying amounts of dysfluencies and judge whether the speech is abnormal, stuttered, normal, fluent, and so on. Because it is difficult to precisely determine how dysfluent the non-stuttering speakers are and what is the minimum level of dysfluency that is needed to diagnose stuttering, experts have tried to determine how listeners respond to different amounts of dysfluencies. Therefore, a frequency of 10% dysfluency is certainly abnormal, and the minimum frequency of dysfluency needed to diagnose stuttering is less than 10%. On the average, people who stutter do so on about 10% of the words they speak. However, over and beyond that, dysfluencies of people who stutter fluctuate from day to day and from one speaking situation to another. The variability found in the amount dysfluencies of typical speakers also is found in people who stutter. When talking about a topic he or she knows very little about under threatening or stressful conditions, when the listeners are unsympathetic or hostile, and when tired, speakers may be more fluent. A typical speaker may be more or less dysfluent depending on the speaking situation, the topic being discussed, the kind of listener involved, the level of fatigue, the amount of knowledge about the topic, and many other factors. Both typical speakers and those who stutter vary a great deal in the amount of dysfluencies. Even part-word repetitions and sound prolongations may be observed, though less frequently, in the everyday speech of most speakers. Pauses of varying durations are equally common, especially in young children whose language skills are still developing. Such dysfluencies as 'uh' and 'um' and word and phrase repetitions are common in the speech of most, if not all, people. Typically fluent speech is not perfectly fluent. In several syndromes, the language disorders may be extreme severity, partly because of intellectual disabilities that are a part of those syndromes. Words that are used more frequently in the language are stuttered less often than those that are used less frequently. People who stutter tend to have greater difficulty with longer words than they do with short ones. Stuttering is more likely on consonants than on vowels, although some stutter predominantly on vowels. Similarly, the initial syllable is more likely to be repeated than are the final syllables. Stuttering is more likely on the initial word of a phrase or a sentence. Dysfluencies are not randomly distributed throughout an utterance. The loci of stuttering refers to the locations in the speech sequence where dysfluencies are typically observed. In other words, dysfluencies are behaviors that disrupt fluency and indicate stuttering, a type of fluency disorder. Dysfluencies are the many forms of interruptions that prevent the easy, effortless, and smooth flow of speech. Because the term 'stuttering' refers to a class of behaviors, and dysfluencies are the most important types of behaviors in that class, it is clear and more appropriate to describe and discuss dysfluencies. Eventually, features also become a part of the stuttering problem. Several other features, including negative feelings toward speech and speaking in general and a tendency to avoid certain words and speaking situations, are due to the initial difficulty in saying the words fluently. In addition, stuttering also may be characterized by associated motor behaviors, which include excessive muscular effort in speaking, facial grimaces, and hand and foot movements. Stuttering is a disorder of fluency characterized by certain types of dysfluencies, excessive amounts of dysfluencies in general, or excessive durations of dysfluencies.
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1 It has been hypothesized that the longer and the less frequently used words are more difficult to produce, and thus they tend to be stuttered more often. 2 Children who are frequently hospitalized for prolonged illness may be somewhat slow in acquisition of language. 3 Results of these listener judgment studies have generally indicated that most dysfluencies are judged abnormal or stuttered when they reach or exceed 5% of the words spoken. 4 Researchers have asked ordinary people to listen to speech sample that contain varying amounts of dysfluencies and judge whether the speech is abnormal, stuttered, normal, fluent, and so on. 5 Because it is difficult to precisely determine how dysfluent the non-stuttering speakers are and what is the minimum level of dysfluency that is needed to diagnose stuttering, experts have tried to determine how listeners respond to different amounts of dysfluencies. 6 Therefore, a frequency of 10% dysfluency is certainly abnormal, and the minimum frequency of dysfluency needed to diagnose stuttering is less than 10%. 7 On the average, people who stutter do so on about 10% of the words they speak. 8 However, over and beyond that, dysfluencies of people who stutter fluctuate from day to day and from one speaking situation to another. 9 The variability found in the amount dysfluencies of typical speakers also is found in people who stutter. 10 When talking about a topic he or she knows very little about under threatening or stressful conditions, when the listeners are unsympathetic or hostile, and when tired, speakers may be more fluent. 11 A typical speaker may be more or less dysfluent depending on the speaking situation, the topic being discussed, the kind of listener involved, the level of fatigue, the amount of knowledge about the topic, and many other factors. 12 Both typical speakers and those who stutter vary a great deal in the amount of dysfluencies. 13 Even part-word repetitions and sound prolongations may be observed, though less frequently, in the everyday speech of most speakers. 14 Pauses of varying durations are equally common, especially in young children whose language skills are still developing. 15 Such dysfluencies as 'uh' and 'um' and word and phrase repetitions are common in the speech of most, if not all, people. 16 Typically fluent speech is not perfectly fluent. 17 In several syndromes, the language disorders may be extreme severity, partly because of intellectual disabilities that are a part of those syndromes. 18 Words that are used more frequently in the language are stuttered less often than those that are used less frequently. 19 People who stutter tend to have greater difficulty with longer words than they do with short ones. 20 Stuttering is more likely on consonants than on vowels, although some stutter predominantly on vowels. 21 Similarly, the initial syllable is more likely to be repeated than are the final syllables. 22 Stuttering is more likely on the initial word of a phrase or a sentence. 23 Dysfluencies are not randomly distributed throughout an utterance. 24 The loci of stuttering refers to the locations in the speech sequence where dysfluencies are typically observed. 25 In other words, dysfluencies are behaviors that disrupt fluency and indicate stuttering, a type of fluency disorder. 26 Dysfluencies are the many forms of interruptions that prevent the easy, effortless, and smooth flow of speech. 27 Because the term 'stuttering' refers to a class of behaviors, and dysfluencies are the most important types of behaviors in that class, it is clear and more appropriate to describe and discuss dysfluencies. 28 Eventually, features also become a part of the stuttering problem. 29 Several other features, including negative feelings toward speech and speaking in general and a tendency to avoid certain words and speaking situations, are due to the initial difficulty in saying the words fluently. 30 In addition, stuttering also may be characterized by associated motor behaviors, which include excessive muscular effort in speaking, facial grimaces, and hand and foot movements. 31 Stuttering is a disorder of fluency characterized by certain types of dysfluencies, excessive amounts of dysfluencies in general, or excessive durations of dysfluencies.