conditioning 1
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Fluency disorder
Fluency disorder
Fluency disorder
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conditioning 1
The observation that a person who stutters speaks fluently on some words, in some speaking situations, and at some times but speaks dyfluently on other words, in other speaking situations, and at other times suggests that perhaps the person has been conditioned to behave that way. Therefore, several theories explain stuttering on the basis of conditioning and learning. A few theorists have suggested that stuttering is a learned avoidance behavior. For example, Wischner suggested that children whose parents negatively evaluate their dysfluencies begin to experience anxiety about their speech. This anxiety, which is eventually conditioned to certain sounds, words, the act of speech, and speaking situations, leads to avoidance behaviors called stuttering. This theory, in essence, is similar to Johnson's. Parents's negative reaction to their children's speech is the beginning of the problem. The main problem with Wischner's theory is that it is difficult to show that parents react negatively to normal dysfluencies, creating the chain of events leading to anxiety and avoidance. Another learning-based view of stuttering is based on Skinner's operant conditioning work. A behavior that can be increased or decreased by arranging certain consequences for it is called an operant. Operants are purposive and voluntary behaviors shaped, maintained, or increased by consequences called reinforcers or decreased by consequences called punishers or aversive stimuli. A reinforcer is any event that, when made to follow a response, increases the frequency of that response. A punisher or an aversive stimulus is any event that, when made to follow a response, decrease the frequency of that response. Stimuli, including persons, objects, and physical settings, that are associated with a reinforced response are called discriminative stimuli. The response is more likely in the presence of its discriminative stimuli. Stimuli, including people, objects, and physical settings, that are associated with a punished and thus decreasing response are called an S-delta. The operant theory of stuttering is based on some experiments that have shown that stutterings can be experimentally increased by reinforcement and decreased by punishment. In some experiments, verbal punishers such as "No" and "Wrong" have been used to reduce the frequency of stuttering. In other studies, electric shock has been used. However, under shock, stuttering has increased in some cases, decreased in others, and shown no changes in a few cases. In still other studies, a blast of noise has been used to reduce stuttering. In essence, like operant behaviors, stuttering can be increased or decreased by presenting various stimuli. Almost all treatment research offers indirect support to the operant theory of stuttering because they are all based on the assumption that stuttering is learned. Many effective treatment procedures positively reinforce fluency and give corrective feedback for stuttering.
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